Chap. 1: Of Peace, and the Obligation to Cultivate It
»
§ 1. What peace is
§ 2. Obligation of cultivating it
§ 3. The sovereign's obligation to it
§ 4. Extent of this duty
§ 5. Of the disturbers of the public peace
§ 6. How far war may be continued
§ 7. Peace the end of war
§ 8. General effects of peace
Chap. 2: Treaties of Peace
»
§ 9. Definition of a treaty of peace
§ 10. By whom it may be concluded
§ 11. Alienations made by a treaty of peace
§ 12. How the sovereign may in a treaty dispose of what concerns individuals
§ 13. Whether a king, being a prisoner of war, can make peace
§ 14. Whether peace can be made with an usurper
§ 15. Allies included in the treaty of peace
§ 16. Associates to treat each for himself
§ 17. Mediation
§ 18. On what footing peace may be concluded
§ 19. General effect of the treaty of peace
§ 20. Amnesty
§ 21. Things not mentioned in the treaty
§ 22. Things not included in the compromise or amnesty
§ 23. Former treaties, mentioned and confirmed in the new, are a part of it
Chap. 3: Of the Execution of the Treaty of Peace
»
§ 24. When the obligation of the treaty commences
§ 25. Publication of the peace
§ 26. Time of the execution
§ 27. A lawful excuse to be admitted
§ 28. The promise is void when the party to whom it was made has himself hindered the performance of it
§ 29. Cessation of contributions
§ 30. Products of the thing restored or ceded
§ 31. In what condition things are to be restored
§ 32. The interpretation of a treaty of peace is to be against the superior party
§ 33. Names of ceded countries
§ 34. Restoration not to be understood of those who have voluntarily given themselves
Chap. 4: Of the Observance and Breach of the Treaty of Peace
»
§ 35. The treaty of peace binds the nation and successors
§ 36. It is to be faithfully observed
§ 37. The plea of fear or force does not dispense with the observance of a treaty
§ 38. How many ways a treaty of peace may be broken
§ 39. By a conduct contrary to the nature of every treaty of peace
§ 40. To take up arms for a fresh cause
§ 41. A subsequent alliance with an enemy is likewise no breach of the treaty
§ 42. Why a distinction is to be made between a new war and a breach of the treaty
§ 43. Justifiable self-defense is no breach of the treaty
§ 44. Causes of rupture on account of allies
§ 45. 2. The treaty is broken by what is contrary to its particular nature
§ 46. 3. By the violation of any article
§ 47. The violation of a single article breaks the whole treaty
§ 48. Whether a distinction may here be made between the more and the less important articles
§ 49. Penalty annexed to the party who violates any less important articles of a treaty
§ 50. Studied delays
§ 51. Insurmountable impediments
§ 52. Infractions of the treaty of peace by the subjects
§ 53. Or by allies
§ 54. Right of the offended party against him who has violated the treaty
Chap. 5:
Abbr.
Of the Right of Embassy, or the Right of Sending and ....
»
§ 55. It is necessary that nations be enabled to treat and communicate together
§ 56. They do this by the agency of public ministers
§ 57. Every sovereign state has a right to send and receive public ministers
§ 58. An unequal alliance, or a treaty of protection, does not take away this right
§ 59. Right of the princes and states of the empire in this respect
§ 60. Cities that have the right of banner
§ 61. Ministers of viceroys
§ 62. Ministers of the nation or of the regents during an interregnum
§ 63. Of him who molests another in the exercise of the right of embassy
§ 64. What is allowable in this respect in time of war
§ 65. The minister of a friendly power is to be received
§ 66. Of resident ministers
§ 67. How the ministers of an enemy are to be admitted
§ 68. Whether ministers may be received from or sent to an usurper
Chap. 6:
Abbr.
Of the Several Orders of Public Ministers - of the ....
»
§ 69. Origin of the several orders of public ministers
§ 70. Representative character
§ 71. Ambassadors
§ 72. Envoys
§ 73. Residents
§ 74. Ministers
§ 75. Consuls, agents, deputies. commissioners, etc
§ 76. Credentials
§ 77. Instructions
§ 78. Right of sending ambassadors
§ 79. The honors which are due to ambassadors
Chap. 7:
Abbr.
Of the Rights, Privileges, and Immunities of Ambassadors ....
»
§ 80. Respect due to public ministers
§ 81. Their persons sacred and inviolable
§ 82. Particular protection due to them
§ 83. When it commences
§ 84. What is due to them in countries through which they pass
§ 85. Ambassadors going to an enemy's country
§ 86. Embassies between enemies
§ 87. Heralds, trumpeters, and drummers
§ 88. Ministers, trumpeters, etc., to be respected, even in a civil war
§ 89. Sometimes they may be refused admittance
§ 90. Every thing which has the appearance of insult to them must be avoided
§ 91. By and to whom they may be sent
§ 92. Independence of foreign ministers
§ 93. How the foreign minister is to behave
§ 94. How he may be punished. 1. For ordinary transgressions
§ 95. 2. for faults committed against the prince
§ 96. Right of ordering away an ambassador who is guilty, or justly suspected
§ 97. Right of repressing him by force, if he behaves as an enemy
§ 98. Ambassador forming dangerous plots and conspiracies
§ 99. What may be done to him according to the exigency of the case
§ 100. Ambassador attempting against the sovereign's life
§ 101. Two remarkable instances respecting the immunities of public ministers
§ 102. Whether reprisals may be made on an ambassador
§ 103. Agreement of nations concerning the privileges of ambassadors
§ 104. Free exercise of religion
§ 105. Whether an ambassador be exempted from all imposts
§ 106. Obligation founded on use and custom
§ 107. A minister whose character is not public
§ 108. A sovereign in a foreign country
§ 109. Deputies to the states
Chap. 8: Of the Judge of Ambassadors in Civil Cases
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§ 110. The ambassador is exempt from the civil jurisdiction of the country where he resides
§ 111. How he may voluntarily subject himself to it
§ 112. A minister who is a subject of the state where he is employed
§ 113. Immunity of the minister extends to his property
§ 114. The exemption cannot extend to effects belonging to any trade the minister may carry on
§ 115. Nor to immovable property which he possesses in the country
§ 116. How justice may be obtained against an ambassador
Chap. 9: Of the Ambassador's House and Domestics
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§ 117. The ambassador's house
§ 118. Right of asylum
§ 119. Exemption of an ambassador's carriage
§ 120. Of his retinue
§ 121. Of his wife and family
§ 122. Of the secretary of the embassy
§ 123. Of the ambassador's couriers and despatches
§ 124. The ambassador's authority over his retinue
§ 125. When the rights of an ambassador expire
§ 126. Cases when new credentials are necessary
§ 127. Conclusion
Chap. 1: Of War, — its Different Kinds — and the Right of Making War
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§ 1. Definition of war
§ 2. Public war
§ 3. Right of making war
§ 4. It belongs only to the sovereign power
§ 5. Defensive and offensive war
Chap. 2:
Abbr.
Of the Instruments of War, - the Raising of Troops, Etc., ....
»
§ 6. Instruments of war
§ 7. Right of levying troops
§ 8. Obligation of the citizens or subjects
§ 9. Enlisting or raising of troops
§ 10. Whether there be any exemptions from carrying arms
§ 11. Soldiers' pay and quarters
§ 12. Hospitals for invalids
§ 13. Mercenary soldiers
§ 14. What is to be observed
§ 15. Enlisting in foreign countries
§ 16. Obligation of soldiers
§ 17. Military laws
§ 18. Military discipline
§ 19. Subordinate powers in war
§ 20. How their promises bind the sovereign
§ 21. In what cases their promises bind only themselves
§ 22. Their assumption of an authority which they do not possess
§ 23. How they bind their inferiors
Chap. 3: Of the Just Causes of War
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§ 24. War never to be undertaken without very cogent reasons
§ 25. Justificatory reasons and motives for making war
§ 26. What is in general a just cause of war
§ 27. What war is unjust
§ 28. The object of war
§ 29. Both justificatory reasons and proper motives requisite in undertaking a war
§ 30. Proper motives
§ 31. War undertaken upon just grounds, but from vicious motives
§ 32. Pretexts
§ 33. War undertaken merely for advantage
§ 34. Nations that are always ready to take up arms
§ 35. How defensive war is just or unjust
§ 36. How it may become unjust against an offensive war which at first was just
§ 37. How an offensive war is just in an evident cause
§ 38. In a doubtful cause
§ 39. War cannot be just on both sides
§ 40. Sometimes it is uncertain who is right
§ 41. War undertaken to punish a nation
§ 42. Whether the aggrandizement of a neighboring power can authorize a war against him
§ 43. Alone and of itself, it cannot give a right to attack him
§ 44. How the appearances of danger gives that right
§ 45. Another case more evident
§ 46. Other allowable means of defense against a formidable power
§ 47. Political equilibrium
§ 48. Ways of maintaining it
§ 49. How he who destroys the equilibrium may be restrained, or even weakened
§ 50. Behavior allowable towards a neighbor preparing for war
Chap. 4: Of the Declaration of War — and of War in Due Form
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§ 51. Declaration of war
§ 52. What it is to contain
§ 53. It is simple or conditional
§ 54. The right to make war ceases on offers of peace
§ 55. Formalities of a declaration of war
§ 56. Other reasons for the necessity of its publication
§ 57. Defensive war requires no declarations
§ 58. When it may be omitted in an offensive war
§ 59. It is not to be omitted by way of retaliation
§ 60. Time of the declaration
§ 61. Duty of the inhabitants on a foreign army's entering a country before a declaration of war
§ 62. Commencement of hostilities
§ 63. Conduct to be observed towards the subjects of an enemy, who are in the country at the time of the declaration of war
§ 64. Publication of the war, and manifestoes
§ 65. Decorum and moderation to be observed in the manifestoes
§ 66. What is lawful war in due force
§ 67. It is to be distinguished from informal and unlawful war
§ 68. Grounds of this distinction
Chap. 5: Of the Enemy, and of Things Belonging to the Enemy
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§ 69. Who is an enemy
§ 70. All the subjects of the two states at war are enemies
§ 71. And continue to be enemies in all places
§ 72. Whether women and children are to be accounted enemies
§ 73. Things belonging to the enemy
§ 74. continue such everywhere
§ 75. Neutral things found with an enemy
§ 76. Lands possessed by foreigners in an enemy's country
§ 77. Things due to the enemy by a third party
Chap. 6:
Abbr.
Of the Enemy's Allies - of Warlike Associations - of Auxiliaries ....
»
§ 78. Treaties relative to war
§ 79. Defensive and offensive alliances
§ 80. Difference between warlike associations and auxiliary treaties
§ 81. Auxiliary troops
§ 82. Subsidies
§ 83. When a nation is allowed to assist another
§ 84. And to make alliances for war
§ 85. Alliances made with a nation actually engaged in war
§ 86. Tacit clause in every warlike alliance
§ 87. To refuse succors for an unjust war is no breach of alliance
§ 88. What constitutes a
casus fœderis
§ 89. It never takes place in an unjust war
§ 90. How it exists in a defensive war
§ 91. And in a treaty of guarantee
§ 92. The succor is not due under an inability to furnish them
§ 93. Other cases
§ 94. Refusal of the succors due
§ 95. The enemy's associates
§ 96. Those who make a common cause with the enemy are his associates
§ 97. And those who assist without being obliged to it
§ 98. Or who are in an offensive alliance with him
§ 99. How a defensive alliance acts as an association against a party
§ 100. Another case
§ 101. In what case it does not produce the same effect
§ 102. Whether it be necessary to declare war against the enemy's associates
Chap. 7: Of Neutrality — and the Passage of Troops Through a Neutral Country
»
§ 103. Neutral nations
§ 104. Conduct to be observed by a neutral nation
§ 105. An ally may furnish the succor due from him, and remain neuter
§ 106. Right of remaining neuter
§ 107. Treaties of neutrality
§ 108. Additional reason for making these treaties
§ 109. Foundation of the rules of neutrality
§ 110. How levies may be allowed, money lent, and every kind of things sold, without a breach of neutrality
§ 111. Trade of neutrals with belligerents
§ 112. Contraband goods
§ 113. Whether such goods may be confiscated
§ 114. Searching
§ 115. Enemy's property on board a neutral ship
§ 116. Neutral property on board an enemy's ship
§ 117. Trade with a besieged town
§ 118. Impartial offices of neutrals
§ 119. Passage of troops through a neutral country
§ 120. Passage to be asked
§ 121. It may be refused for good reasons
§ 122. In what case it may be forced
§ 123. The fear of danger authorizes a refusal
§ 124. Or a demand of every reasonable security
§ 125. Whether always necessary to give every kind of security required
§ 126. Equality to be observed towards both parties as to the passage
§ 127. No complaint lies against a neutral state for granting a passage
§ 128. This state may refuse it from a fear of the resentment of the opposite party
§ 129. And lest her country should become the theatre of war
§ 130. What is included in the grant of passage
§ 131. Safety of the passage
§ 132. No hostility to be committed in a neutral country
§ 133. Neutral country not to afford a retreat to troops, that they may again attack their enemies
§ 134. Conduct to be observed by
§ 135. A passage may be refused for a war evidently unjust
Chap. 8:
Abbr.
Of the Rights of Nations in War, - And, First, of What We ....
»
§ 136. General principles of the rights against an enemy in a just war
§ 137. Difference between what we have a right to do and what is barely allowed to be done with impunity between enemies
§ 138. The right to weaken an enemy by every justifiable method
§ 139. The right over the enemy's person
§ 140. Limits of this right
§ 141. A particular case, in which quarter may be refused
§ 142. Reprisal
§ 143. Whether a governor of a town can be punished with death for an obstinate defense
§ 144. Fugitives and deserters
§ 145. Women, children, the aged, and sick
§ 146. Clergy, men of letters, and others
§ 147. Husbandmen, and in general all unarmed people
§ 148. The right of making prisoners of war
§ 149. A prisoner of war not to be put to death
§ 150. How prisoners of war are to be treated
§ 151. Whether prisoners, who cannot be kept or fed, may be put to death
§ 152. Whether prisoners of war may be made slaves
§ 153. Exchange and ransom of prisoners
§ 154. The state is bound to procure their release
§ 155. Whether an enemy may lawfully be assassinated or poisoned
§ 156. Whether poisoned weapons may be used in war
§ 157. Whether springs may be poisoned
§ 158. Dispositions to the person of the enemy
§ 159. Tenderness for the person of a king who is in arms against us
Chap. 9: Of the Right of War, with Regard to Things Belonging to the Enemy
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§ 160. Principles of the right over things belonging to the enemy
§ 161. The right of seizing on them
§ 162. What is taken front the enemy by way of penalty
§ 163. What is withheld from him, in order to oblige him to give just satisfaction
§ 164. Booty
§ 165. Contributions
§ 166. Waste and destruction
§ 167. Ravaging and burning
§ 168. What things are to be spared
§ 169. Bombarding towns
§ 170. Demolition of fortresses
§ 171. Safe-guards
§ 172. General rule of moderation respecting the evil which may be done to an enemy
§ 173. Rule of the voluntary law of nations on the same subject
Chap. 10:
Abbr.
Of Faith Between Enemies, - of Stratagems, Artifices ....
»
§ 174. Faith to be sacred between enemies
§ 175. What treaties are to be observed between enemies
§ 176. On what occasions they may be broken
§ 177. Of lies
§ 178. Stratagems and artifices in war
§ 179. Spies
§ 180. Clandestine seduction of the enemy's people
§ 181. Whether the offers of a traitor may be accepted
§ 182. Deceitful intelligence
Chap. 11: Of the Sovereign Who Wages an Unjust War
»
§ 183. An unjust war gives no right whatever
§ 184. Great guilt of the sovereign who undertakes it
§ 185. His obligations
§ 186. Difficulty of repairing the injury he has done
§ 187. Whether the nation and the military are bound to any thing
Chap. 12:
Abbr.
Of the Voluntary Law of Nations, as it Regards the ....
»
§ 188. Nations not rigidly to enforce the law of nature against each other
§ 189. Why they ought to admit the voluntary law of nations
§ 190. Regular war, as to its effects, is to be accounted just on both sides
§ 191. Whatever is permitted to one party, is so to the other
§ 192. The voluntary law gives merely confers impunity upon him whose cause is unjust
Chap. 13: Of Acquisitions by War, and Particularly of Conquests
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§ 193. How war is a method of acquisition
§ 194. Measure of the right it gives
§ 195. Rules of the voluntary law of nations
§ 196. Acquisition of movable property
§ 197. Acquisition of immovables, — or conquest
§ 198. How to transfer them validly
§ 199. Conditions on which a conquered town is acquired
§ 200. Lands of private persons
§ 201. Conquest of the whole state
§ 202. To whom the conquest belongs
§ 203. Whether we are to set at liberty a people whom the enemy had unjustly conquered
Chap. 14: Of the Right of Postliminium
»
§ 204. Definition of the right of postliminium
§ 205. Foundation of this right
§ 206. How it takes effect
§ 207. Whether it takes effect among the allies
§ 208. Of no validity in neutral nations
§ 209. What things are recoverable by this right
§ 210. Of those persons who cannot return by the right of postliminium
§ 211. They enjoy this right when retaken
§ 212. Whether this right extends to their property alienated by the enemy
§ 213. Whether a nation that has been entirely subdued can enjoy the right of postliminium
§ 214. Right of postliminium for what is restored at the peace
§ 215. And for things ceded to the enemy
§ 216. The right of postliminium does not exist after a peace
§ 217. Why always in force for prisoners
§ 218. They are free even by escaping into a neutral country
§ 219. How the rights and obligations of prisoners subsist
§ 220. Testament of a prisoner of war
§ 221. Marriage
§ 222. Regulations respecting postliminium, established by treaty or custom
Chap. 15: Of the Right of Private Persons in War
»
§ 223. Subjects cannot commit hostilities without the sovereign's order
§ 224. That order may be general or particular
§ 225. Source of the necessity of such an order
§ 226. Why the law of nations should have adopted this rule
§ 227. Precise meaning of the order
§ 228. What private persons may undertake, presuming on the sovereign's will
§ 229. Privateers
§ 230. Volunteers
§ 231. What soldiers and subalterns may do
§ 232. Whether the state is bound to indemnify the subjects for damages sustained in war
Chap. 16: Of Various Conventions Made During the Course of the War
»
§ 233. Truce and suspension of arms
§ 234. Does not terminate the war
§ 235. A truce is either partial or general
§ 236. General truce for many years
§ 237. By whom these agreements may be concluded
§ 238. The sovereign's faith engaged in them
§ 239. When the truce comes into force
§ 240. Publication of the truce
§ 241. Subjects contravening the truce
§ 242. Violation of the truce
§ 243. Stipulation of a penalty against the infractor
§ 244. Time of the truce
§ 245. Effects of a truce, what is allowed, or not, during its continuance. 1st Rule: - Each party may do at home what they have a right to do in peacetime
§ 246. 2nd Rule: — Not to take advantage of the truce in doing what hostilities would have prevented
§ 247. For instance, continuing the works of a siege, or repairing breaches
§ 248. Or introducing succors
§ 249. Distinction of a particular case
§ 250. Retreat of an army during a suspension of hostilities
§ 251. 3rd Rule: - Nothing to be attempted in contested places, but every thing to be left as it was
§ 252. Places quitted or neglected by the enemy
§ 253. Subjects inclined to revolt against their prince not to be received during the truce
§ 254. Much less to be solicited to treason
§ 255. Persons or effects of enemies not to be seized during the truce
§ 256. Right of postliminium during the truce
§ 257. Intercourse allowed during a truce
§ 258. Persons detained by unsurmountable obstacles after the expiration of the truce
§ 259. Particular conditions added to truces
§ 260. At the expiration of the truce, the war is renewed without any fresh declaration
§ 261. Capitulations; and by whom they may be concluded
§ 262. Clauses contained in them
§ 263. Observance of capitulations, and its utility
§ 264. Promises made to the enemy by individuals
Chap. 17:
Abbr.
Of Safe-conducts and Passports, - with Questions on the ....
»
§ 265. Nature of safe-conducts and passports
§ 266. From what authority they emanate
§ 267. Not transferable from one person to another
§ 268. Extent of the promised security
§ 269. How to judge of the right derived from a safe-conduct
§ 270. Whether it includes baggage and domestics
§ 271. Safe-conduct granted to the father does not include his family
§ 272. Safe-conduct given in general, to any one and his retinue
§ 273. Term of the safe-conduct
§ 274. A person forcibly detained beyond the term
§ 275. The Safe-conduct does not expire at the death of him who gave it
§ 276. How it may be revoked
§ 277. A safe-conduct containing the clause, "for such time as we shall think fit"
§ 278. Conventions relating to the ransom of prisoners
§ 279. The right of demanding a ransom may be transferred
§ 280. What may annul the convention made for the rate of the ransom
§ 281. A prisoner dying before payment of ransom
§ 282. Prisoner released on condition of procuring the release of another
§ 283. Prisoner retaken before he has paid his former ransom
§ 284. Prisoner rescued before he has received his liberty
§ 285. Whether the things which a prisoner has found means to conceal, belong to him
§ 286. Hostages given lot the release of a prisoner
Chap. 18: Of Civil War
»
§ 287 Foundation of the sovereign's rights against the rebels
§ 288. Who are rebels
§ 289. Popular commotion, insurrection, sedition
§ 290. How the sovereign resolves the situation
§ 291. He is bound to perform the promises he has made to the rebels
§ 292. Civil war
§ 293. A civil war produces two independent parties
§ 294. They are to observe the common laws of war
§ 295. The effects of civil war distinguished according to cases
§ 296. Conduct to be observed by foreign nations
Chap. 1:
Abbr.
Of The Common Duties of a Nation Towards Others; Or, of ....
»
§ 1. Foundation of the common and mutual duties of nations
§ 2. Offices of humanity, and their foundation
§ 3. General principle of all the mutual duties of nations
§ 4. Duties of a nation for the preservation of others
§ 5. It ought to assist a nation afflicted with famine or any other calamities
§ 6. It ought to contribute to the perfection of other states
§ 7. But not by force
§ 8. The right to require the offices of humanity
§ 9. The right of judging whether they are to be granted
§ 10. A nation is not to compel another to perform these
§ 11. Mutual love of nations
§ 12. Each nation ought to cultivate the friendship of others
§ 13. To perfect itself with a view to the advantage of others, and set them good examples
§ 14. To take care of their glory
§ 15. Difference of religion
§ 16. Rule and measure of the offices of humanity
§ 17. Particular limitation with regard to the prince
§ 18. No nation ought to injure others
§ 19. Offences
§ 20. Bad customs of the ancients
Chap. 2: Of the Mutual Commerce Between Nations
»
§ 21. General obligation of nations to carry on mutual commerce
§ 22. They should favor trade
§ 23. Freedom of trade
§ 24. Right of trading belonging to nations
§ 25. Each nation is sole judge of the propriety of commerce on her own part
§ 26. Necessity of commercial treaties
§ 27. General rule concerning those treaties
§ 28. Duty of nations in making those treaties
§ 29. Perpetual or temporary treaties, or treaties revocable at pleasure
§ 30. Nothing contrary to the tenor of a treaty can be granted to a third party
§ 31. How far lawful to give up by treaty the liberty of trading with other nations
§ 32. A nation may abridge its commerce in favor of another
§ 33. A nation may appropriate to herself a particular branch of trade
§ 34. Consuls
Chap. 3:
Abbr.
Of the Dignity and Equality of Nations — of Titles and Other ....
»
§ 35. Dignity of nations or sovereign states
§ 36. Their equality
§ 37. Precedency
§ 38. The form of government is foreign to this question
§ 39. A state ought to keep its rank, notwithstanding any changes in the form of its government
§ 40. Treaties and established customs are to be observed in that respect
§ 41. Of the name and honors
§ 42. Whether a sovereign may assume what title and honors he pleases
§ 43. Right of other nations in this respect
§ 44. Their duty
§ 45. How titles and honors may be secured
§ 46. We must conform to general customs
§ 47. Mutual respect which sovereigns owe to each other
§ 48. How a sovereign ought to maintain his dignity
Chap. 4:
Abbr.
Of the Right to Security, and the Effects of the Sovereignty ....
»
§ 49. Right to security
§ 50. It produces the right of resistance
§ 51. And that of obtaining reparation
§ 52. And the right of punishing
§ 53. Right of all nations against a mischievous people
§ 54. No nation has a right to interfere in the government of another state
§ 55. One sovereign cannot make himself the judge of the conduct of another
§ 56. How far is it lawful to interfere in a quarrel between a sovereign and his subjects
§ 57. Right of opposing the interference of foreign powers in the affairs of government
§ 58. The same rights with respect to religion
§ 59. No nation can be constrained with respect to religion
§ 60. Offices of humanity in these matters: Missionaries
§ 61. Circumspection to be used
§ 62. What a sovereign may do in favor of those who profess his religion in another state
Chap. 5: Of the Observance of Justice Between Nations
»
§ 63. Necessity of the observance of justice in human society
§ 64. Obligation of all nations to cultivate and observe justice
§ 65. Right of refusing to submit to injustice
§ 66. This right is a perfect one
§ 67. It produces 1. The right of defense
§ 68.2 The right of doing ourselves justice
§ 69. The right of punishing injustice
§ 70. Right of all nations against one that openly despises justice
Chap. 6: Of the Concern a Nation May Have in the Actions of Her Citizens
»
§ 71. The sovereign ought to revenge the injuries of the state
§ 72. He ought not to suffer his subjects to offend other nations or their cltizens
§ 73. The acts of individuals are not to be imputed to the nation
§ 74. Unless it approves or ratifies them
§ 75. Conduct to be observed by the offended party
§ 76. Duty of the aggressor's sovereign
§ 77. If he refuses justice, he becomes a party in the fault and offence
§ 78. Another case in which the nation is guilty of the crimes of the citizens
Chap. 7: Effects of the Domain Between Nations
»
§ 79. General effect of the domain
§ 80. What is comprehended in the domain of a nation
§ 81. The property of the citizens is the property of the nation, with respect to foreign nations
§ 82. A consequence of this principle
§ 83. Connection of the domain of the nation with the sovereignty
§ 84. Jurisdiction
§ 85. Effects of the jurisdiction in foreign countries
§ 86. Desert and uncultivated places
§ 87. Duty of the nation in this respect
§ 88. Right of possessing things that have no owner
§ 89. Rights granted to another nation
§ 90. It is not allowable to drive a nation out of a country which it inhabits
§ 91. To extend by violence the bounds of empire
§ 92. The limits of territories ought to be carefully settled
§ 93. Violation of territory
§ 94. Prohibition to enter the territory
§ 95. A country possessed by several nations at the same time
§ 96. A country possessed by a private person
§ 97. Independent families in a country
§ 98. Possession of certain places only, or of certain rights, in a vacant country
Chap. 8: Rules with Respect to Foreigners
»
§ 99. General idea of the conduct the state ought to observe towards foreigners
§ 100. Entering the territory
§ 101. Foreigners are subject to the laws
§ 102. And punishable according to the laws
§ 103. Who is the judge of their disputes
§ 104. Protection due to foreigners
§ 105. Their duties
§ 107. Foreigners continue to be members of their own nation
§ 108. The state has no right over the person of a foreigner
§ 109. Nor over his property
§ 110. Who are the heirs of a foreigner
§ 111. Wills of foreigners
§ 112. Droit d'aubaine
§ 113. The right of
traite foraine
§ 114. Immovable property possessed by an alien
§ 115. Marriages of aliens
Chap. 9:
Abbr.
Of the Rights Retained by All Nations after the Introduction ....
»
§ 116. What are the rights of which men cannot be deprived
§ 117. The right which survives from the original state of community of ownership
§ 118. The right remaining to each nation over what belongs to the others
§ 119. The right of necessity
§ 120. Right of procuring provisions by force
§ 121. Right of making use of the things that belong to others
§ 122. Right of carrying off women
§ 123. Right of passage
§ 124. And of procuring things of which one has need
§ 125. The right to dwell in a foreign country
§ 126. Things of which the supply is not exhausted by use
§ 127. Right of innocent use
§ 128. Nature of this right in general
§ 129. And in cases not doubtful
§ 130. Exercise of this right between nations
Chap. 10:
Abbr.
How a Nation Is to Use Her Right of Domain, in Order to ....
»
§ 131. General duty of the proprietor
§ 132. Innocent passage
§ 133. Sureties may be required
§ 134. Passage of merchandise
§ 135. Residence in the country
§ 136. How we are to act towards foreigners who desire a perpetual residence
§ 137. Right accruing
§ 138. A right granted as a favor
§ 139. The Nation ought to be courteous
Chap. 11: Of Usucaption and Prescription among Nations
»
§ 140. Definition of usucaption and prescription
§ 141. Usucaption and prescription derived from the law of nature
§ 142. What foundation is required for ordinary prescription
§ 143. Immemorial prescription
§ 144. Claimant alleging reasons for his silence
§ 145. Proprietor sufficiently showing that he does not mean to abandon his right
§ 146. Prescription founded on
§ 147. Usucaption and prescription take place between nations
§ 148. More difficult between nations, to found them on a presumptive desertion
§ 149. Other principles that enforce prescription
§ 150. Effects of the voluntary law of nations on this subject
§ 151. Law of treaties or of custom in this matter
Chap. 12: Of Treaties of Alliance, and Other Public Treaties
»
§ 152. Nature of treaties
§ 153. Pactions, agreements, or conventions
§ 154. By whom treaties are made
§ 155. Whether a state under protection may make treaties
§ 156. Treaties concluded by proxies or plenipotentiaries
§ 157. The validity of treaties
§ 158. The fact that they work injuriously does not render them void
§ 159. Duty of nations in this respect
§ 160. Nullity of treaties which are pernicious to the state
§ 161. Nullity of treaties made for an unjust or dishonest purpose
§ 162. Whether an alliance may be contracted with those who do not profess the true religion
§ 163. Obligation of observing treaties
§ 164. The violation of a treaty is an act of injustice
§ 165. Treaties cannot be made contrary to those already existing
§ 166. How treaties may be concluded with several nations with the same view
§ 167. The more ancient ally entitled to a preference
§ 168. We owe no assistance in an unjust war
§ 169. General division of treaties
§ 170. Collision of these treaties with the duties we owe to ourselves
§ 171. Treaties in which we barely promise to do no injury
§ 172. Treaties concerning things that are not naturally due Equal Treaties
§ 173. Obligation of preserving equality in treaties
§ 174. Difference between equal treaties and equal alliances
§ 175. Unequal treaties and unequal alliances
§ 176. How an alliance with diminution of sovereignty may annul preceding treaties
§ 177. We ought to avoid as much as possible making unequal alliances
§ 178. Mutual duties of nations with respect to unequal alliances
§ 179. In alliances where the inequality is on the side of the more powerful party
§ 180. How inequality of treaties and a alliances may be conformable to the law of nature
§ 181. Inequality imposed by way of punishment
§ 182. Other kinds of which we have spoken elsewhere
§ 183. Personal and real treaties
§ 184. Naming the contracting parties in the treaty does not render it personal
§ 185. An alliance made by a republic is real
§ 186. Treaties concluded by kings or other monarchs
§ 187. Perpetual treaties, and those for a certain time
§ 188. Treaties made for the king and his successors
§ 189. Treaties made for the good of the kingdom
§ 190. How presumption ought to be founded in doubtful cases
§ 191. The obligations and rights resulting from a real treaty pass to succeeding sovereigns
§ 192. Treaties executed by an act done once for all
§ 193. Treaties already carried out in part
§ 194. A personal alliance expires if one of the contracting powers ceases to reign
§ 195. Treaties personal by their nature
§ 196. An alliance concluded for the defense of the king and of the royal family
§ 197. Obligation of a real alliance when the allied king is deposed
Chap. 13: Of the Dissolution and Renewal of Treaties
»
§ 198. Expiration of alliances made for a limited time
§ 199. Renewal of treaties
§ 200. How a treaty is dissolved, when violated by one of the contracting parties
§ 201. The violation of the treaty does not cancel another
§ 202. The violation of one article in a treaty may cancel the whole
§ 203. The treaty is void by the destruction of one of the contracting powers
§ 204. Alliances of a state that has afterwards put herself under the protection of another
§ 205. Treaties dissolved by mutual consent
Chap. 14:
Abbr.
Of Other Public Conventions: Of Those That Are Made by ....
»
§ 206. Conventions made by sovereigns
§ 207. Those made by subordinate powers
§ 208. Treaties concluded by a public person, without orders from the sovereign, or without sufficient powers
§ 209. The agreement called
sponsio
§ 210. The state is not bound by such an agreement
§ 211. To what the promisor is bound when it is disavowed
§ 212. To what the sovereign is bound
§ 213. Private contracts of the sovereign
§ 214. Contracts made by him with private persons in the name of the state
§ 215. They are binding on the nation
§ 216. Debts of the sovereign and the state
§ 217. Donations of the sovereign
Chap. 15: Of the Faith of Treaties
»
§ 218. What is sacred among nations
§ 219. Treaties are sacred between nations
§ 220. The faith of treaties is sacred
§ 221. He who violates his treaties, violates the law of nations
§ 222. Right of nations against him who disregards a treaty
§ 223. The law of nations violated by the popes
§ 224. This abuse authorized by princes
§ 225. Use of an oath in treaties — It does not constitute the obligation
§ 226. It does not change the nature of obligations
§ 227. It gives no pre-eminence to one treaty above another
§ 228. It cannot give force to a treaty that is invalid
§ 229. Affirmations
§ 230. The faith of treaties does not depend on the difference of religion
§ 231. Precautions to be taken in wording treaties
§ 232. Subterfuges in treaties
§ 233. An evidently false interpretation inconsistent with the faith of treaties
§ 234. Faith tacitly pledged
Chap. 16: Of Securities Given for the Observance of Treaties
»
§ 235. Guaranty
§ 236. It gives the guarantee no right to interfere unasked in the execution of a treaty
§ 237. Nature of the obligation it imposes
§ 238. The guaranty cannot impair the rights of a third party
§ 239. Duration of the guaranty
§ 240. Treaties with surety
§ 241. Pawns, securities, and mortgages
§ 242. A nation's right over what she holds as a pledge
§ 243. How she is obliged to restore it
§ 244. How she may appropriate it to herself
§ 245. Hostages
§ 246. What right we have over hostages
§ 247. Their liberty alone is pledged
§ 248. When they are to be sent back
§ 249. Whether they may be detained on any other account
§ 250. They may be detained for their own actions
§ 251. Of the support of hostages
§ 252. A subject cannot refuse to be a hostage
§ 253. Rank of the hostages
§ 254. They ought not to make their escape
§ 255. Whether a hostage who dies is to be replaced
§ 256. Of him who takes the place of a hostage
§ 257. A hostage succeeding to the crown
§ 258. The liability of the hostage ends with the treaty
§ 259. The violation of the treaty is an injury done to the hostages
§ 260. The fate of the hostage when he who has given him fails in his faith
§ 261. Of the right founded on custom
Chap. 17: Of the Interpretation of Treaties
»
§ 262. Necessity of establishing rules of interpretation
§ 263. 1st general maxim: it is not allowable to interpret what has no need of interpretation
§ 264. 2nd general maxim: if he who could and ought to have explained himself has not done it, it is to his own detriment
§ 265. 3rd general maxim: neither of the contracting parties has a right to interpret the treaty according to his own fancy
§ 266. 4th general maxim: what is sufficiently declared, is to be taken for true
§ 267. We ought to attend rather to the words of the person promising than the ones stipulating of its performance
§ 268. 5th general maxim: the interpretation ought to be made according to certain rules
§ 269. The faith of treaties lays an obligation to follow these rules
§ 270. General rule of interpretation
§ 271. The terms are to be explained conformably to common usage
§ 272. Interpretation of ancient treaties
§ 273. Of quibbles on words
§ 274. A rule on this subject
§ 275. Mental reservations
§ 276. Interpretation of technical terms
§ 277. Of terms whose signification admits of degrees
§ 278. Of figurative expressions
§ 279. Of equivocal expressions
§ 280. The rule for these two cases
§ 281. Not necessary to give a term the same sense everywhere in the same deed
§ 282. We ought to reject every interpretation that leads to an absurdity
§ 283. And that which renders the act null and inefficient
§ 284. Obscure expressions interpreted by others more clear in the same author
§ 285. Interpretation founded on the connection of the discourse
§ 286. Interpretation drawn from the connection and relation of the things themselves
§ 287. Interpretation founded on the reason of the deed
§ 288. Where many reasons have concurred to determine the will
§ 289. What constitutes a sufficient reason for an act of the will
§ 290. Extensive interpretation founded on the reason of the act
§ 291. Frauds tending to elude laws or promises
§ 292. Restrictive interpretation
§ 293. Its use, in order to avoid falling into absurdities, or into what is unlawful
§ 294. Or what is too severe and burdensome
§ 295. How it ought to restrict the signification agreeably to the subject
§ 296. How a change happening in the state of things may form an exception
§ 297. Interpretation of a deed in unforeseen cases
§ 298. Reasons arising from the possibility, and not the existence of a thing
§ 299. Expressions
§ 300. Of things favorable, and things odious
§ 301. What tends to the common advantage, and to equality, is favorable; the contrary is odious
§ 302. What is useful to human society, is favorable; the contrary is odious
§ 303. Whatever contains a penalty, is odious
§ 304. Whatever renders a deed void is odious
§ 305. Whatever tends to change the present state of things is odious
§ 306. Things of a mixed nature
§ 307. Interpretation of favorable things
§ 308. Interpretation of odious things
§ 309. Examples
§ 310. How we ought to interpret deeds of pure liberality
§ 311. Collision of laws or treaties
§ 312. 1st rule in cases of collusion
§ 313. 2nd Rule
§ 314. 3rd Rule
§ 315. 4th Rule
§ 316. 5th Rule
§ 317. 6th Rule
§ 318. 7th Rule
§ 319. 8th Rule
§ 320. 9th Rule
§ 321. 10th Rule
§ 322. General remark on the manner of observing all the preceding rules
Chap. 18: Of the Mode of Terminating Disputes Between Nations
»
§ 323. General direction on this subject
§ 324. Every nation is bound to give satisfaction respecting the just complaints of another
§ 325. How nations may abandon their rights and just complaints
§ 326. Means suggested by the law of nature, for terminating differences
§ 327. 2. Compromise
§ 328. 3. Mediation
§ 329. 4. Arbitration
§ 330. Conferences and congresses
§ 331. Distinction to be made between evident and doubtful cases
§ 332. Of essential rights, and those of less importance
§ 333. How we acquire a right of having recourse to force in a doubtful cause
§ 334. And even without attempting other measures
§ 335. Voluntary law of nations on this subject
§ 336. Equitable conditions to be offered
§ 337. Possessor's right in doubtful cases
§ 338. How reparation of an injury is to be sought
§ 339. Retaliation
§ 340. Various modes of punishing, without having recourse to arms
§ 341. Retortion
§ 342. Reprisals
§ 343. What is required to render them lawful
§ 344. Upon what effects are reprisals made
§ 345. The state ought to compensate those who suffer by reprisals
§ 346. The sovereign alone can
§ 347. Reprisals against a nation for actions of its subjects, and in favor of the injured subjects
§ 348. But not in favor of foreigners
§ 349. Those who have given cause for reprisals ought to indemnify those who suffer by them
§ 350. What may be deemed a refusal to do justice
§ 351. Subjects arrested by way of reprisals
§ 352. Our right against those who oppose reprisals
§ 353. Just reprisals do not afford a just cause for war
§ 354. How we ought to confine ourselves to reprisals, or at length proceed to hostilities
Chap. 1: Of Nations or Sovereign States
»
§ 1. Of the state, and of sovereignty
§ 2. Authority of the body politic over the members
§ 3. Of the several kinds of government
§ 4. What are sovereign states
§ 5. States bound by unequal alliance
§ 6. Or by treaties of protection
§ 7. Of tributary states
§ 8. Of feudatory states
§ 9. Of two states subject to the same prince
§ 10. Of states forming a federal republic
§ 11. Of a state that has passed under the dominion of another
Chap. 2: General Principles of the Duties of a Nation Towards Herself
»
§ 12. The objects of this treatise
§ 13. A nation ought to act agreeably to its nature
§ 14. Of the preservation and perfection of a nation
§ 15. What is the end of civil society
§ 16. A nation is under an obligation to preserve itself
§ 17. And to preserve its members
§ 18. A nation has a right to every thing necessary for its preservation
§ 19. It ought to avoid every thing that might occasion its destruction
§ 20. Of its right to every thing that may promote this end
§ 21. A nation ought to perfect itself and the state
§ 22. And to avoid every thing contrary to its perfection
§ 23. The rights it derives from these obligations
§ 24. Examples
§ 25. A nation ought to know itself
Chap. 3: Of the Constitution of a State, and its Duties and Rights
»
§ 26. Of public authority
§ 27. What is the constitution of a state
§ 28. The nation ought to choose the best constitution
§ 29. Of political, fundamental, and civil laws
§ 30. Of the support of the constitution and obedience to the laws
§ 31. The rights of a nation with respect to its constitution and government
§ 32. It may reform the government
§ 33. And may change the constitution
§ 34. Of the legislative power, and whether it can change the constitution
§ 35. The nation ought not to attempt it without great caution
§ 36. It is the judge of all disputes relating to the government
§ 37. No foreign power has a right to interfere
Chap. 4: Of the Sovereign, His Obligations, and His Rights
»
§ 38. Of the sovereign
§ 39. It is solely established for the safety and advantage of society
§ 40. Of his representative character
§ 41. He is intrusted with the obligations of the nation, and invested with its rights
§ 42. His duty with respect to the preservation and perfection of the nation
§ 43. His rights in this respect
§ 44. He ought to know the nation
§ 45. The extent of his power
§ 46. The prince ought to respect and support the fundamental laws
§ 47. He may change the laws not fundamental
§ 48. He ought to maintain and observe the existing laws
§ 49. In what sense he is subject to the laws
§ 50. His person is sacred and inviolable
§ 51. But the nation may curb a tyrant, and withdraw itself from his obedience
§ 52. Arbitration between the king and his subjects
§ 53. The obedience which subjects owe to a sovereign
§ 54. In what cases they may resist him
§ 55. Of ministers
Chap. 5: Of States, Elective, Successive, Hereditary and Patrimonial
»
§ 56. Of elective states
§ 57. Whether elective kings are real sovereigns
§ 58. Of successive and hereditary states - The origin of the right of succession
§ 59. Other origins of this right
§ 60. Other sources which still amount to the same thing
§ 61. A nation may change the order of the succession
§ 62. Of renunciations
§ 63. The order of succession ought commonly to be kept
§ 64. Of Regents
§ 65. Indivisibility of sovereignties
§ 66. Who are to decide disputes respecting the succession to a sovereignty
§ 67. That the right to the succession ought not to depend on the judgment of a foreign power
§ 68. Of states called patrimonial
§ 69. Every true sovereignty is unalienable
§ 70. Duty of a prince who is empowered to nominate his successor
§ 71. He must have at least a tacit ratification
Chap. 6: Principal Objects of a Good Government;First, to Provide for Necessities
»
§ 72. The object of society points out the duties of the sovereign
§ 73. To take care that there be a sufficient number of workmen
§ 74. To prevent the emigration of those that are useful
§ 75. Emissaries who entice them away
§ 76. Labor and industry must be encouraged
Chap. 7: Of the Cultivation of the Soil
»
§ 77. The utility of tillage
§ 78. Regulations necessary in this respect
§ 79. For the protection of husbandmen
§ 80. Husbandry ought to be placed in an honorable light
§ 81. The cultivation of the soil a natural obligation
§ 82. Of public granaries
Chap. 8: Of Commerce
»
§ 83. Of home and foreign trade
§ 84. Utility of the home trade
§ 85. Utility of foreign trade
§ 86. Obligation to cultivate the home trade
§ 87. Obligation to carry on foreign trade
§ 88. Foundation of the laws of commerce: — right of purchasing
§ 89. Right of selling
§ 90. Prohibition of foreign merchandise
§ 91. Nature of the right of buying
§ 92. Every nation is to choose how far it will engage in commerce
§ 93. How a nation acquires a perfect right to a foreign trade
§ 94. Of the simple permission of commerce
§ 95. Whether the laws relating to commerce are subject to prescription
§ 96. Imprescriptibility of rights founded on treaty
§ 97. Of monopolies, and trading companies, with exclusive privileges
§ 98. Balance of trade, and attention of government in this respect
§ 99. Import duties
Chap. 9: Of the Care of the Public Ways; and of Tolls
»
§ 100. Utility of highways, canals, etc.
§ 101. Duty of government in this respect
§ 102. Its rights in this respect
§ 103. Foundation of the right of toll
§ 104. Abuse of this right
Chap. 10: Of Money and Exchange
»
§ 105. Establishment of money
§ 106. Duty of the nation or prince with respect to the coin
§ 107. Their rights in this respect
§ 108. How one nation may injure another in the article of coin
§ 109. Of exchange, and the laws of commerce
Chap. 11: Second Object of a Good Government, to Procure True Happiness
»
§ 110. A nation ought to labor after its own happiness
§ 111. Instruction
§ 112. Education of youth
§ 113. Arts and sciences
§ 114. Freedom of philosophical discussion
§ 115. Love of virtue, and abhorrence of vice, to be excited
§ 116. The nation may hence discover the intention of its rulers
§ 117. The state, or the public person, ought to perfect its understanding and will
§ 118. And to direct the knowledge and virtues of the citizens to the welfare of the society
§ 119. Love for their country
§ 120. In individuals
§ 121. In the nation or state itself, and in the sovereign
§ 122. Definition of the term country
§ 123. How shameful and criminal to injure our country
§ 124. The glory of good citizens, Example
Chap. 12: Of Piety and Religion
»
§ 125. Of piety
§ 126. It ought to be attended with knowledge
§ 127. Of religion internal and external
§ 128. Rights of individuals
§ 129. Public establishment of religion - Duties and rights of a Nation
§ 130. When there is not yet a religion established by law
§ 131. When there is a religion established by law
§ 132. Duties and rights of the sovereign with regard to religion
§ 133. In case there is an established religion
§ 134. Objects of his care, and the means he ought to employ
§ 135. Of toleration
§ 136. What the prince ought to do when the nation is resolved to change its religion
§ 137. Difference of religion does not deprive a prince of his crown
§ 138. Duties and rights of the sovereign reconciled with those of the subject
§ 139. The sovereign ought to have the inspection of the affairs of religion, and authority over those who teach it
§ 140. He ought to prevent the abuse of the received religion
§ 141. The sovereign's authority over the ministers of religion
§ 142. Nature of this authority
§ 143. Rule to be observed with respect to ecclesiastics
§ 144. Recapitulation of the reasons which establish the sovereign's rights in matters of religion
§ 145. Pernicious consequences of the contrary opinion
§ 146. The abuses particularized. 1. The power of the popes
§ 147. 2. Important employments conferred by a foreign power
§ 148. 3. Powerful subjects dependent on a foreign court
§ 149. 4. The celibacy of the priests
§ 150. 5. Enormous pretensions of the clergy. Pre-eminence
§ 151. 6. Independence immunities
§ 152. 7. Immunity of church possessions
§ 153. 8. Excommunication of men in office
§ 154. 9. And of sovereigns themselves
§ 155. 10. The clergy drawing every thing to themselves, and disturbing the order of justice
§ 156. 11. Money drawn to Rome
§ 157. 12. Laws and customs contrary to the welfare of states
Chap. 13: Of Justice and Polity
»
§ 158. A nation ought to make justice reign
§ 159. To establish good laws
§ 160. To enforce them
§ 161. Functions and duties of the prince in this respect
§ 162. How he is to dispense justice
§ 163. He ought to appoint enlightened and upright judges
§ 164. The ordinary courts should determine causes relating to the revenue
§ 165. There ought to be established supreme courts of justice wherein causes should be finally determined
§ 166. The prince ought to preserve the forms of justice
§ 167. The prince ought to support the authority of the judges
§ 168. Of distributive justice. The distribution of employments and rewards
§ 169. Punishment of transgressors
§ 170. Criminal laws
§ 171. Degree of punishment
§ 172. Execution of the laws
§ 173. Right of pardoning
§ 174. Internal police
§ 175. Duel, or single combat
§ 176. Means of putting a stop to this disorder
Chap. 14: Third Object of a Good Government: to Fortify Itself Against Attacks
»
§ 177. A nation ought to fortify itself against external attacks
§ 178. National strength
§ 179. Increase of population
§ 180. Valor
§ 181. Other military virtues
§ 182. Riches
§ 183. Public revenues and taxes
§ 184. The nation ought not to increase its power by illegal means
§ 185. Power is but relative
Chap. 15: Of the Glory of a Nation
»
§ 186. Advantages of glory
§ 187. Duty of the nation
§ 188. Duty of the prince
§ 189. Duty of the citizens
§ 190. Example of the Swiss
§ 191. Attacking the glory of a nation is doing her an injury
Chap. 16: Protection Sought by a Nation, and Submission to a Foreign Power
»
§ 192. Protection
§ 193. Voluntary submission of one nation to another
§ 194. Several kinds of submission
§ 195. Right of the citizens when the nation submits to a foreign power
§ 196. These compacts annulled by the failure of protection
§ 197. Or by the infidelity of the party protected
§ 198. And by the encroachments of the protector
§ 199. How the right of the nation protected is lost by its silence
Chap. 17: How a Nation May Renounce Her Allegiance to Her Sovereign
»
§ 200. Difference between the present case and those in the preceding chapter
§ 201. Duty of the members of a state, or subjects of a prince, who are in danger
§ 202. Their right when they are abandoned
Chap. 18: Establishment of a Nation in a Country
»
§ 203. Possession of a country by a nation
§ 204. Its right over the parts in its possession
§ 205. Acquisition of the sovereignty in a vacant country
§ 206. Another manner of acquiring the empire in a free country
§ 207. How a nation appropriates to itself a desert country
§ 208. A question on this subject
§ 209. Whether it is lawful to occupy a portion of a territory in which there are wondering tribes in small numbers
§ 210. Colonies
Chap. 19: Of Our Native Country, and Several Things That Relate to It
»
§ 211. What is our country
§ 212. Citizens and natives
§ 213. Inhabitants
§ 214. Naturalization
§ 215. Children of citizens born in a foreign country
§ 216. Children born at sea
§ 217. Children born in the armies of the state
§ 218. Settlement
§ 219. Vagrants
§ 220. Whether a person may quit his country
§ 221. How a person may absent himself for a time
§ 222. Variation of the political laws in this respect, These must be obeyed
§ 223. Cases in which a citizen has a right to quit his country
§ 224. Emigrants
§ 225. Sources of their right
§ 226. If the sovereign infringes their right, he injures them
§ 227. Supplicants
§ 228. Exile and banishment
§ 229. The exile and banished man have a right to live somewhere
§ 230. Nature of this right
§ 231. Duty of nations towards them
§ 232. A nation cannot punish them for faults committed out of its territories
§ 233. Except such as affect the common safety of mankind
Chap. 20: Public, Common, and Private Property
»
§ 234. What the Romans called
res communes
§ 235. Aggregate wealth of a nation, and its divisions
§ 236. Two ways of acquiring public property
§ 237. The revenues of the public property are naturally at the sovereign's disposal
§ 238. The nation may grant him the use and property of its common possessions
§ 239. Or allow him the domain, and reserve to itself the use of them
§ 240. Taxes
§ 241. The nation may reserve to itself the right of imposing them
§ 242. Of the sovereign who has this power
§ 243. Duties of the prince with respect to taxes
§ 244. Eminent
domain
annexed to the sovereignty
§ 245. Dominion over public property
§ 246. The superior may make
laws
with respect to the use of things possessed in common
§ 247. Alienation of the property of a corporation
§ 238. The nation may grant him the use and property of its common possessions
§ 239. Or allow him the domain, and reserve to itself the use of them
§ 240. Taxes
§ 241. The nation may reserve to itself the right of imposing them
§ 242. Of the sovereign who has this power
§ 243. Duties of the prince with respect to taxes
§ 244. Eminent
domain
annexed to the sovereignty
§ 245. Dominion over public property
§ 246. The superior may make
laws
with respect to the use of things possessed in common
§ 247. Alienation of the property of a corporation
§ 248. Use of common property
§ 249. How each member is to enjoy it
§ 250. The right of the first comer
§ 251. Another application of the same right
§ 252. The maintenance and repair of public property
§ 253. Duty and rights of the sovereign in this respect
§ 254. Private property
§ 255. The sovereign may regulate its use
§ 256. Inheritances
Chap. 21: Of the Alienation of the Public Properly, or the Domain
»
§ 257. A nation may alienate its public property
§ 258. Duties of a nation in this respect
§ 259. Duties of the sovereign
§ 260. He may not alienate public property
§ 261. The nation may give him the right to do it
§ 262. Rules on this subject with respect to treaties between nation and nation
§ 263. The alienation of a part of the state
§ 264. Rights of those who are thus cut off from the state
§ 265. Whether the prince has power to dismember the state
Chap. 22: Of Rivers, Streams, and Lakes
»
§ 266. A river which separates two countries
§ 267. The bed of a river which either dries up or changes its course
§ 268. The right of alluvion
§ 269. Whether alluvion produces any change in the rights over a river
§ 270. The result of a change in the course of the river
§ 271. Works tending to turn aside the current
§ 272. Or in general, hurtful to the rights of others
§ 273. Rules with respect to two conflicting rights
§ 274. Lakes
§ 275. Lakes which increase in extent
§ 276. Land formed on the banks of a lake
§ 277. The bed of a lake that has dried up
§ 278. Jurisdiction over lakes and rivers
Chap. 23: Of the Sea
»
§ 279. The sea, and its use
§ 280. Whether the sea is susceptible of occupation and ownership
§ 281. No one has a right to appropriate the use of the high seas
§ 282. The nation that attempts to exclude another, does it an injury
§ 283. It even does an injury to all nations
§ 284. It may acquire an exclusive right by treaties
§ 285. But not by prescription or long use
§ 286. Unless in virtue of an implied agreement
§ 287. The sea near the coasts may be subject to ownership
§ 288. Another reason for appropriating the sea near the coasts
§ 289. How far marginal waters may be appropriated
§ 290. Shores and ports
§ 291. Bays and straits
§ 292. Straits in particular
§ 293. Right to wrecks
§ 294. A sea enclosed within the territories of a nation
§ 295. The parts of the sea held by a nation are under its jurisdiction
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